2012;37(1):4-16. Bowman GL. Three meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies and randomized controlled trials have reported an overall reduction in the risk of post-operative atrial fibrillation following administration of primarily oral vitamin C (140-142). Vitamin C is depleted during and following cardiac surgery (134)and this might be due to the direct quenching of ROS, the regeneration of other antioxidants, and/or a massive synthesis of catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) (135). Andres M, Sivera F, Falzon L, Buchbinder R, Carmona L. Dietary supplements for chronic gout. Thus, individuals suffering from certain diseases may require substantially larger amounts of vitamin C to achieve optimum body levels or derive therapeutic benefits, areas that were of great interest to Linus Pauling and need to be further explored. 1980;33(1):71-76. Among the five out of eight trials in asthmatic subjects that reported on FEV1 outcomes, none found a difference between vitamin C supplementation and placebo(180). Vitamin C also limited endothelial dysfunction that was experimentally induced in healthy volunteers (39). Carr AC, Rosengrave PC, Bayer S, Chambers S, Mehrtens J, Shaw GM. Plasma vitamin C predicts incident heart failure in men and women in European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition-Norfolk prospective study. Making sense of early high-dose intravenous vitamin C in ischemia/reperfusion injury. 2009;46(11):1558. Although only a minority of trials delivered vitamin C intravenously, this administration route appeared to be more effective at reducing the risk of atrial fibrillationpresumably due to higher plasma concentrations achieved (140). Serum antioxidant nutrients, vitamin A, and mortality in U.S. Hong SW, Lee SH, Moon JH, et al. Pharmacokinetic studies in older adults have not yet been conducted, but there is some evidence suggesting that the efficiency of one of the molecular mechanisms for the cellular uptake of vitamin C declines with age (208). Effect of Helicobacter pylori and its eradication on gastric juice ascorbic acid. 2012(6):Cd004567. Relationship between oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and ultrastructural damage in patients with coronary artery disease undergoing cardioplegic arrest/reperfusion. 2008;66(5):237-249. On the other hand, when plasma vitamin C concentration was measured, cross-sectional studies have consistently indicated an inverse relationship between plasma vitamin C concentration and blood pressure in both men and women (41-43). Int J Cancer. 2008;15(1):26-34. BMJ. Several cross-sectional studies have reported an inverse association between vitamin C status and blood lead concentration. Shock. Contemp Clin Trials. These observations are consistent with other data that intakes of about 400 mg/day are associated with reduced risk of heart disease. Arch Intern Med. Annu Rev Nutr. Goodman M, Bostick RM, Kucuk O, Jones DP. In another AD mouse model that was lacking the ability to synthesize vitamin C, supplementation with a high versus low dose of vitamin C reduced amyloid deposition in the cortex and hippocampus and limited blood-brain barrier impairments and mitochondrial dysfunction (99). However, leukocyte vitamin C concentration does not accurately reflect vitamin C in several tissues and may specifically underestimate vitamin C uptake into skeletal muscle (26). Ye Y, Li J, Yuan Z. Carr AC, Cook J. (PubMed), 68 Nagel G, Linseisen J, van Gils CH, et al. These products are all Lp (a) binding inhibitors. 1976;84B(5):280-284. 2016;6(2):243-250. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. Information regarding vitamin C and the prevention of chronic disease is based on both observational prospective cohort studies and randomized controlled trials(29, 37). (PubMed), 126. Conversely, there are case reports suggesting that supplemental vitamin C may lower blood concentrations of some medications, such as fluphenazine (the antipsychotic drug, Prolixin) and indinavir (the antiretroviral drug, Crixivan) (200). Al-Khudairy L, Flowers N, Wheelhouse R, et al. Lykkesfeldt J, Poulsen HE. Mirvish SS, Wallcave L, Eagen M, Shubik P. Ascorbate-nitrite reaction: possible means of blocking the formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. Vitamin C in Health and Disease. Natural Medicines. (PubMed), 173. (PubMed), 88. Liebman M, Chai WW, Harvey E, Boenisch L. Effect of supplemental ascorbate and orange juice on urinary oxalate. In the Nurses' Health Study, premenopausal women with a family history of breast cancer who consumed an average of 205 mg/day of vitamin C from food had a 63% lower risk of breast cancer than those who consumed an average of 70 mg/day (65). 14. 2010;103(9):1251-1259. Asleh R, Levy AP. McEvoy CT, Milner KF, Scherman AJ, et al. A 2014 meta-analysis of 44 randomized controlled trials in subjects with or without chronic diseases summarized the effect of supplemental vitamin C on endothelial function by measuring FMD (19 studies), assessing forearm blood flow (20 studies), or by pulse wave analysis (5 trials) (39). Vitamin C supplementation for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. 1999;281(15):1415-1423. Natural and synthetic L-ascorbic acid are chemically identical and there are no known differences regarding biological activities or bioavailability(186). Another pilot multicenter trial found better lung function during the first week of life and lower risk of wheezing through one year of age in infants whose smoking mothers were randomized to receive vitamin C (500 mg/day) rather than a placebo during pregnancy (95). Antioxidant effects of vitamins in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Regular supplementation with vitamin C (0.25 to 2 g/day) did not reduce the incidence of colds in the general population (23 trials); however, in participants undergoing heavy physical stress (e.g., marathon runners, skiers, or soldiers in subarctic conditions), vitamin C supplementation halved the incidence of colds (5 trials). In parallel to these dietary assessment studies, a strong inverse association between plasma vitamin C and mortality from all-causes, cardiovascular disease, and ischemic heart disease (and cancer in men only) was observed in the EPIC-Norfolk multicenter, prospective cohort study (128). Patients are advised to discuss with their oncologist before using vitamin C supplements (200, 201). New York: Macel Dekker, Inc.; 1997:309-322. Hammoud AO, Bujold E, Sorokin Y, Schild C, Krapp M, Baumann P. Smoking in pregnancy revisited: findings from a large population-based study. Balbi ME, Tonin FS, Mendes AM, et al. Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is available in many forms, but there is little scientific evidence that any one form is better absorbed or more effective than another. Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo. Jane Higdon, Ph.D. One small placebo-controlled, cross-over trial in 11 men showed that the oral administration of 4 g of vitamin C resulted in a greater vitamin C concentration in plasma over a four-hour period when vitamin C was encapsulated in liposomes compared to unencapsulated vitamin C (190). Micronutrient intake in relation to all-cause mortality in a prospective Danish cohort. Sodium ascorbate provides 111 mg of sodium (889 mg of ascorbic acid) per 1,000 mg of sodium ascorbate, and calcium ascorbate generally provides 90 to 110 mg of calcium (890-910 mg of ascorbic acid) per 1,000 mg of calcium ascorbate. The dietary fructose: vitamin C intake ratio is associated with hyperuricemia in African-American adults. (PubMed), 196. Symptoms of scurvy include subcutaneous bleeding, poor wound closure, and bruising easily, hair and tooth loss, and joint pain and swelling. In an observational study that included 1,387 men, higher intakes of vitamin C were associated with lower serum concentrations of uric acid (117). In the Vitamins and Lifestyle Study, 77,719men and women (ages 50-76 years) were questioned at baseline on their use of dietary supplements during the previous 10 years (124). Nutr Cancer. Ascorbic Acid: Biochemistry and Biomedical Cell Biology. Cheng Y, Willett WC, Schwartz J, Sparrow D, Weiss S, Hu H. Relation of nutrition to bone lead and blood lead levels in middle-aged to elderly men. 2013(10):Cd010391. Dixit S, Bernardo A, Walker JM, et al. Although trials do not currently support the use of high-dose supplementation with vitamin C in cataract prevention, there is a consistent inverse association observed between high daily intake of fruit and/or vegetables (>5 servings/day) and risk of cataract (113). 25. J Pharm Biomed Anal. In addition, there is currently little evidence to support a role for vitamin C in the management of patients with gout (123). Alexander J. Michels, Ph.D. The effect of vitamin C supplementation, in combination with other antioxidants, on CSF biomarkers and cognitive function has been examined in only a few trials involving AD patients. Results from 7,277 participants in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 indicated that an estimated 7.1% of individuals ages 6 years were deficient in vitamin Cbased on serum vitamin C concentrations <11.4 mol/L (36). Arch Neurol. Thomas LD, Elinder CG, Tiselius HG, Wolk A, Akesson A. Ascorbic acid supplements and kidney stone incidence among men: a prospective study. Molecular Biology of the Cell. Prenatal vitamin C and E supplementation in smokers is associated with reduced placental abruption and preterm birth: a secondary analysis. Disparate results are likely due to study design issues, often linked to a lack of understanding of vitamin C pharmacokinetics and requirements (19, 20). 17. A benefit of regular vitamin C supplementation was also seen in the duration of colds, with a greater benefit in children than in adults: The pooled effect of vitamin C supplementation was a 14% reduction in cold duration in children and an 8% reduction in adults. Only one large trial in more than 14,000 older men participating in the Physicians Health Study II (PHS II) reported on cardiovascular outcomes. In this latter trial, a greater decline in the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score was observed in the supplemented group, however, the significance of this observation remains unclear. However, cases have occurred in children and the elderly on very restricted diets (33, 34). Combined effect of metformin with ascorbic acid versus acetyl salicylic acid on diabetes-related cardiovascular complication; a 12-month single blind multicenter randomized control trial. (PubMed), 87. 2011;43(6):624-627. Jane Higdon, Ph.D. Nutr Rev. Wandzilak TR, D'Andre SD, Davis PA, Williams HE. (PubMed), 131. 1999;18(2):166-170. Barbara Delage, Ph.D. Lowell JA. Vitamin C is known to function as a highly effective antioxidant in living organisms. Corvallis, Oregon 97331, phone: 541-737-5075 | fax: 541-737-5077 2016;5(2):94-100. Oregon State University, Updated in December 2004 by: 2018;24(4):248-255. Traxer O, Huet B, Poindexter J, Pak CY, Pearle MS. Effect of ascorbic acid consumption on urinary stone risk factors. (PubMed), 168. 2008;26(3):297-304. (PubMed), 79 Park Y, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Notably, intravenous administration of vitamin C bypasses absorptive control in the intestine such that very high concentrations of vitamin C can be achieved in the plasma; within a few hours, renal excretion restores vitamin C to baseline plasma concentrations (see Cancer Treatment) (25). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (PubMed), 141. Antioxidant vitamin supplementation for preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract. Widespread publicity has been given to a few studies suggesting a pro-oxidant effect of vitamin C (204, 205), but these studies turned out to be either flawed or of no physiological relevance. P R Health Sci J. (PubMed), 54. Austria R, Semenzato A, Bettero A. Fruit, vegetable and vitamin C intakes and plasma vitamin C: cross-sectional associations with insulin resistance and glycaemia in 9-10 year-old children. Linus Pauling and Matthias Rath first presented their lipoprotein-a theory of arterial disease in 1990. In adults, lead toxicity may result in kidney damage, high blood pressure, and anemia. Two large prospective cohort studies, one following 45,251 men for six years and the other following 85,557 women for 14 years, reported that consumption of 1,500 mg of vitamin C daily did not increase the risk of kidney stone formation compared to those consuming <250 mg daily (196, 197). Related to this oxidation-reduction (redox) potential, two major functions of vitamin C are as an antioxidant and as an enzyme cofactor(1). 2015;6(4):570-581. Current evidence of the efficacy of intravenous vitamin C in cancer patients is limited to observational studies, uncontrolled interventions, and case reports(174, 175). 2013;22(12):2202-2211. (PubMed), 133. Additionally, work by Linus Pauling Institute investigators has shown that cellular uptake of vitamin C declines with age, supporting the notion that vitamin C requirements are increased in the elderly. (PubMed), 43. JAMA. Finally, vitamin C increases the bioavailability of iron from foods by enhancing intestinal absorption of non-heme iron (see the article on Iron) (21). While most generally healthy young adults can achieve these plasma concentrations with daily vitamin C intake of at least 200 mg/day, some individuals may have a lower vitamin C absorptive capacity than what is currently documented. Another meta-analysis of 40 randomized controlled trials in 276,820 women found no effect of vitamin C, alone or combined with vitamin E or multivitamins, when supplemented during pregnancy (starting prior to 20 weeks gestation), on the risks of overall fetal loss, miscarriage, stillbirth, and congenital malformation(89). (PubMed), 9 Vallance S. Relationships between ascorbic acid and serum proteins of the immune system. 2014;13(4):280-300. Cabanillas F. Vitamin C and cancer: what can we conclude--1,609 patients and 33 years later? 2001;292(5524):2083-2086. Large doses of vitamin C may block the action of warfarin and thus lower its effectiveness. In the past 40 years, numerous placebo-controlled trials have examined the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the prevention and treatment of colds. In the second prospective cohort study, the Diet, Cancer and Health Study, 55,543 Danish adults (ages 50-64 years) were questioned at baseline about their lifestyle, diet, and supplement use during the previous 12 months (125). Harrison J, Rentz DM, McLaughlin T, et al. One trial found that vitamin C supplementation (1 g/day) for 14 weeks reduced the risk of asthma attacks precipitated by respiratory infection. Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk. Ann Thorac Surg. (PubMed). Vitamin C is concentrated in the brain through a combination of active transport into brain tissue and retention via the blood-brain barrier (100). He was introduced to the (PubMed), 82. Originally written in 2000 by: One 12-month randomized placebo-controlled trial in 456 participants with type 2 diabetes treated with metformin examined the effect of vitamin C (500 mg/day) or acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin; 100 mg/day) on risk factors for diabetes-related complications such as CVD (147). The mechanisms underlying differential sensitivity to vitamin C are under investigation. Roswall N, Olsen A, Christensen J, Dragsted LO, Overvad K, Tjonneland A. Micronutrient intake and breast cancer characteristics among postmenopausal women. The information on dietary factors and supplements, food, and beverages contained on this website does not cover all possible uses, actions, precautions, side effects, and interactions. J Emerg Med. 2005;24(4):269-276. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. While acute scurvy can be prevented by a mere 10 mg vitamin C per day, there is no current research showing how much vitamin C might be required to prevent the atherosclerotic plaques of chronic scurvy. Nutr J. 2017;37:58-64. Linus Pauling's Basic Vitamin Advice is Centered on Vitamin C, and adds: Vitamin E - 800 to 3200 iu Per Doctor Sinatra's Miracle of CoQ10 book, an epidemiological WHO study showed that heart attack is 70% more likely in people with low blood levels of vitamin E, than in people with high blood pressure or high choleserol. Victoria J. Drake, Ph.D. Wang ZJ, Hu WK, Liu YY, et al. Plasma concentrations of ascorbate reach steady-state at concentrations between 60 and 80 micromoles/L (mol/L). Am J Clin Nutr. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in individuals with diabetes mellitus. Liu C, Russell RM. With the latest RDA published in 2000, a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for vitamin C was set for the first time (Table 4). Aspirin can impair vitamin C status if taken frequently (201). Because maximizing blood concentrations of vitamin C may be important in protecting against oxidative damage to cells and biological molecules, a vitamin C intake of at least 400 mg daily might benefit older adults who are at higher risk for chronic diseases caused, in part, by oxidative damage, such as heart disease, stroke, certain cancers, and cataract. Nutrition Forum 2:33-36, 1985. The Linus Pauling Protocol - Vitamin C Vitamin C Deficiency Has Major Impact on Collagen Production Vitamin C is required to make a protein called collagen which is the major component of connective tissues. 1982;47(3):473-482. Potential mechanisms of action for vitamin C in cancer: reviewing the evidence. Breast Cancer Res Treat. Michels AJ, Joisher N, Hagen TM. A UL of 2 g (2,000 mg) daily was recommended in order to prevent generally healthy adults from experiencing diarrhea and gastrointestinal disturbances (35). 2013;65(6):1636-1642. The heart muscle may become oxygen-deprived (ischemic) as the result of myocardial infarction or with aortic clamping during coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. 2008;19(11):1969-1974. In developing his recommendations, he used cross-species comparisons, evolutionary arguments, the concept of biochemical individuality, and the amount of vitamin C likely consumed in a raw plant food diet. The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers. (PubMed), 42. Specifically, plasma vitamin C ranged from approximately 23 to 70 mol/L in men and 33 to 82 mol/L in women; across this range, every 20 mol/L increase in plasma vitamin C was associated with a 9% reduction in risk of heart failure. Chen Q, Espey MG, Krishna MC, et al. The work of Linus Pauling stimulated public interest in the use of doses greater than 1 g/day of vitamin C to prevent the common cold (177). 2014;15:192. Int J Cancer. Redox Rep. 2016;21(2):75-83. Levine M, Conry-Cantilena C, Wang Y, et al. 1998;36(3):143-147. http://practicingmedicinewithoutalicense.com/protocol/excerpt_chp7.pdf He received a patent on his work. Vitamin C has been shown to increase interferon production in vitro(17). Diabet Med. San Francisco: W.H. Twenty-five years. Myocardial reperfusion injury leads to complications, such as reperfusion arrhythmias (see Atrial fibrillation) and myocardial stunning. A pilot clinical study of continuous intravenous ascorbate in terminal cancer patients. Schleicher RL, Carroll MD, Ford ES, Lacher DA. Four phase I clinical trials in patients with advanced cancer found that intravenous administration of vitamin C at doses up to 1.5 g/kg of body weight (equivalent to about 100 g/day for an average weight [70 kg] person) and 70 to 80 g/m2 was well tolerated and safe in pre-screened patients (167-170). Ascorbic acid, cognitive function, and Alzheimer's disease: a current review and future direction. Phase I safety trial of intravenous ascorbic acid in patients with severe sepsis. (PubMed), 114. See also the section on Cancer in the Symposium on Vitamin CPart of the LPIs 9th International Conference on Diet and Optimum Health. A 2013 meta-analysis of 53 placebo-controlled trials evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the incidence, duration, or severity of the common cold when taken as a continuous daily supplement (43 trials) or as therapy upon onset of cold symptoms (10 trials) (178). 2008;168(14):1493-1499. Whether any increase in oxalate levels would translate to an elevation in risk for kidney stones has been examined in several epidemiological studies. Linus Pauling's specific therapy for cardiovascular and heart diseases are high dosages of two essential nutrients; vitamin C and the amino acid lysine . A recent randomized controlled trial assessed the effect of vitamin C and vitamin E administration on reperfusion damage in patients who experienced acute myocardial infarction and underwent coronary angioplasty (see below) (132). They demonstrated in guinea pigs, which do not internally produce vitamin C as most other mammals do, that lipoprotein-a take the place of ascorbate (vitamin C) in arterial walls, weakening them . Yokoyama T, Date C, Kokubo Y, Yoshiike N, Matsumura Y, Tanaka H. Serum vitamin C concentration was inversely associated with subsequent 20-year incidence of stroke in a Japanese rural community. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy. The effect of intravenous vitamin C on cancer- and chemotherapy-related fatigue and quality of life. (PubMed), 207. 2014;3(2):45-54. J Natl Cancer Inst. Spoelstra-de Man AME, Elbers PWG, Oudemans-van Straaten HM. (PubMed), 60. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 11th ed. Low ascorbate levels are associated with increased hypoxia-inducible factor-1 activity and an aggressive tumor phenotype in endometrial cancer. Wei L, Liang G, Cai C, Lv J. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is a transient narrowing of the airways that occurs after exercise and is indicated by a 10% decline in Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1). 1986;104(5):753-755. Accessed 7/2/18. (PubMed), 176. All our products feature Linus Pauling's two main recommendations: Lots of vitamin C and the amino acid lysine to neutralize Lp (a) cholesterol. Science. Gillani SW, Sulaiman SAS, Abdul MIM, Baig MR. Early symptoms of scurvy like fatigue may result from diminished levels of carnitine, which is needed to derive energy from fat, or from decreased synthesis of the catecholamine norepinephrine (see Function). Of note, because intravenous administration of 80 g of vitamin C precipitated hemolytic anemia in two subjects with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, patients due to receive high-dose vitamin C infusion are systematically screened for this genetic disorder (166). The lively 92-year-old first gave a candid history of how he came to take up the vitamin C cause. A third placebo-controlled trial in mildly cognitively impaired older adults (ages, 60-75 years) found that one-year supplementation with vitamin C (400 mg/day) and vitamin E (300 mg/day) improved antioxidant blood capacity but had no effect on MMSE scores (106). For some still unclear reasons, smoking has been associated with a lower risk of preeclampsia during pregnancy (93). In 2004, a pooled analysis of nine prospective cohort studies found that supplemental vitamin C intake (400 mg/day for a mean of 10 years), but not dietary vitamin C intake, was inversely associated with CHD risk (46). (PubMed), 62. Higher SVCT-2 levels were associated with enhanced sensitivity to vitamin C in nine different breast cancer cell lines. Relation between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality in men and women in EPIC-Norfolk prospective study: a prospective population study. 1997;17(3):415-425. Linus Pauling Institute (PubMed), 179. J Am Heart Assoc. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2003;410(1):112-120. Klingelhoeffer C, Kammerer U, Koospal M, et al. Although free metal ions are not generally found under physiological conditions, the idea that high doses of vitamin C might be able to promote oxidative damage in vivo has received a great deal of attention. (PubMed), 148. Cigarette smoking or second-hand exposure to cigarette smoke contributes to increased blood lead concentration and a state of chronic low-level lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect. Stroke. Vitamin C. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, eds. Cameron E, Pauling L. Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer. (PubMed), 128. Intravenous ascorbic acid infusion improves myocardial perfusion grade during elective percutaneous coronary intervention: relationship with oxidative stress markers. 1994;94(7):779-781. 1976;73(10):3685-3689. (PubMed), 136. 2010;341:c4229. Potentiation of in vitro and in vivo lymphocyte responses. Natural resistance to ascorbic acid induced oxidative stress is mainly mediated by catalase activity in human cancer cells and catalase-silencing sensitizes to oxidative stress. Hemila H, Chalker E. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Ashor AW, Werner AD, Lara J, Willis ND, Mathers JC, Siervo M. Effects of vitamin C supplementation on glycaemic control: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. 2010;29(3):215-217. Vitamin C Foundation Approved Cardio-C (Pauling-therapy) drink mix provides Linus Pauling's specific vitamin C and lysine. (PubMed), 23. 2012;64(2):245-254. The information on dietary factors and supplements, food, and beverages contained on this website does not cover all possible uses, actions, precautions, side effects, and interactions. An eight-week, open-label, controlled trial randomized 40 subjects with gout to receive either allopurinol (standard-of-care), vitamin C, or both treatments (122). Linus Pauling Institute Dr. Pauling significantly increased his recommendation in his 1986 book How To Live Longer and Feel Better. Production of both collagen and elastin requires vitamin C, lysine and proline. (PubMed), 152. (PubMed), 24. In: Harris JR, ed. 3rd ed. Why is Collagen Important ? BMC Ophthalmol. Auer BL, Auer D, Rodgers AL. A meta-analysis of observational studies found that a reduced risk of age-related cataract with higher dietary vitamin C intakes in case-control studies and with higher circulating vitamin C concentrations in cross-sectional studies. Some, yet not all, studies in animal models such as vitamin C-deficient guinea pigs or genetically scorbutic rats found an increased uptake of vitamin C in peripheral circulation and specific organs in the presence of flavonoids. It is not intended as nutritional or medical advice for individual problems. 2017;21(1):300. By the late 1700s, the British navy was aware that scurvy could be cured by eating oranges or lemons, even though vitamin C would not be isolated until the early 1930s.

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